A 62-year-old male smoker presents with progressive dyspnea and cough. Spirometry shows FEV1/FVC ratio of 0.62 (obstructive pattern) with TLC 115% predicted. DLCO is measured at 45% predicted (marked A in the diagram). KCO is also reduced at 58% predicted. Which of the following best explains the pathophysiologic basis for the reduction marked A in this patient?

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