Hypertensive Retinopathy

A 52-year-old man with uncontrolled hypertension (BP 180/110 mmHg) presents with sudden vision loss and headache. Fundoscopy reveals flame-shaped hemorrhages, cotton-wool spots, hard exudates in a macular star pattern, and optic disc swelling. Which investigation is most appropriate to confirm the diagnosis of hypertensive retinopathy and assess for associated end-organ damage?

A 52-year-old man with uncontrolled hypertension (BP 180/110 mmHg) presents with blurred vision. Fundoscopy reveals flame-shaped hemorrhages, cotton-wool spots, hard exudates in a macular star pattern, and papilledema. All of the following are characteristic findings of hypertensive retinopathy EXCEPT:

A 48-year-old woman with chronic hypertension (BP 165/95 mmHg) is found to have Grade II hypertensive retinopathy on routine fundoscopy. She is asymptomatic. Which agent is the preferred first-line oral antihypertensive for long-term management of her hypertension to prevent progression of retinopathy?

Which of the following retinal findings is characteristic of Grade 3 hypertensive retinopathy according to the Keith-Wagener classification?

A 52-year-old man from Delhi presents with blurred vision in both eyes for 3 days. He has a 8-year history of hypertension poorly controlled on amlodipine monotherapy. On examination, blood pressure is 178/112 mmHg. Fundoscopy reveals flame-shaped hemorrhages, cotton-wool spots, hard exudates arranged in a macular star pattern, and blurred disc margins. Serum creatinine is 2.1 mg/dL (baseline 0.9 mg/dL). What is the Keith-Wagener-Barker grade of hypertensive retinopathy in this patient?