Myopia, Hypermetropia, Astigmatism

A 28-year-old software engineer from Bangalore presents with complaints of difficulty reading text on his computer screen and frequent headaches after 2–3 hours of work. He reports that distant objects appear clear, but near vision becomes blurred. His uncorrected visual acuity is 6/6 for distance but N36 for near. Retinoscopy shows a spherical refraction of +1.50 D in both eyes. Accommodation amplitude is 8.5 D (normal for age 28 is ~10 D). What is the most likely diagnosis?

A 35-year-old woman from Mumbai presents with complaints of blurred vision at all distances and frequent changes in spectacle prescription over the past 6 months. On examination, visual acuity with pinhole is 6/9 in both eyes. Retinoscopy reveals a mixed refractive error: sphere −1.50 D with cylinder −1.25 D × 90° in the right eye, and sphere −0.75 D with cylinder −1.00 D × 85° in the left eye. Corneal topography shows irregular astigmatism. She denies any ocular trauma or surgery. What is the most likely diagnosis and the underlying cause?

A 35-year-old woman from Delhi presents with blurred vision at all distances and complains that her vision is worse in dim lighting. On examination, her uncorrected visual acuity is 6/18 in both eyes. Retinoscopy reveals a refraction of –2.00 D sphere in the right eye and –1.50 D sphere with –1.00 D cylinder axis 90° in the left eye. Pinhole acuity improves to 6/9 in both eyes. Fundoscopy is normal. What is the refractive error in the left eye, and what is the most appropriate management?

A 35-year-old woman visits the optometry clinic complaining of blurred vision at all distances, with the blurring worse in certain meridians. She reports that when she squints, her vision improves slightly. On examination, uncorrected visual acuity is 6/18 in both eyes. Retinoscopy reveals a finding of +1.50 D in the horizontal meridian and +3.50 D in the vertical meridian. When a cylindrical lens of −2.00 D axis 90° is added to a +1.50 D sphere, her visual acuity improves to 6/6. What is the most likely refractive error?

A patient has astigmatism with the steepest meridian at 90° (vertical) and the flattest meridian at 180° (horizontal). This is classified as which type of astigmatism?